The Sub-Saharan Brain Drain

I. Purpose

African nations become further marginalized as globalization of the world economy continues. The African economy has not overcome structural difficulties that prevent effective global competition and economic growth. Per capita incomes continue to decline while population grows at alarmingly high rates. Poverty is pervasive as the population moves towards primate cities. Developmental theorists argue that education is a significant key to reducing population growth and to economic growth. Developing nations attempt to attract technology and capital to their countries to stimulate their economies, however, a reverse phenomenon is occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa. Educated professionals and skilled laborers are leaving their countries in what is now referred to as "reverse technology transfer" or the "Brain Drain Effect". This project will seek to assemble an annotated bibliography of the available literature relevant to education and professional ex-migration from Sub-Saharan Africa to provide a reference for further research into the reverse technology transfer phenomena.

II. Significance

Africa has one of the highest population growth rates among the regions of the world (Bos, 1994). The population continues to migrate towards primate cities established during the colonialization of the continent. In addition, per capita incomes continue to fall producing increased poverty (The World Bank, 1997, 1998). Skilled and professional workers leave the continent in search of higher, more stable wages. As a result, foreign investors’ confidence in African nations is eroded so it is difficult to attract foreign investment to stimulate growth. African nations are collectively faced with the challenge of reversing the trend towards further marginalization, providing adequate income to support their populations and reducing population growth to manageable levels. Many issues need to be resolved, however, education and retention of a skilled and professional work force may be key to reversing the current trends.

III. Background

The indigenous social and economic systems of Africa were drastically altered during the period of colonial expansion into Africa. Conolialization established a new order designed for resource extraction to support the industrialization of primarily Western Europe. The new urban system established by the colonialists allowed Africa to integrate into the global economy in a dependent manner establishing primate cities is each African region. These dependent ties have deepened during the recent post-colonial period. Much of the population migrated to the primate cities as the continent rapidly urbanized. Soon Africa will become a continent of large, primate cities (Stewart, 1997).

African nations continue to foster economic ties with the countries that colonized them and have sought to create new economic relationships with other developed nations, notably the United States. Globalization brings multinational corporations and foreign investment into developing nations. Foreign investment in a country also tends to bring new business culture into the receiving country and builds familiarity between the nations. As the population in the developing nation learns from their new foreign partners, a migration bridge is built on familiarity with the culture of the developed nation, knowledge of opportunities either real or perceived in the investing nation and with the added availability of transportation opportunities (Sassen, 1988).

Africa continues to be further marginalized due to many factors that drain their economies including the increasing spread between the prices for export resources and input finished goods. Their ability to maintain an effective institution building capacity is compromised. This has undermined their development efforts and has contributed to the large impoverished population. The result has been dilapidated infrastructure, decaying institutions and the exodus of the professional and managerial cadre (Ebohon, 1997).

Historically intellectual migration from lesser-developed countries to developed countries had been welcomed because it added to world productivity by transferring skilled labor from marginally developed countries to more highly productive countries where their skills could be used more productively. This migration has also been seen as a force bringing greater understanding among people and countries furthering world peace. However, trends through the 1960's saw a disproportionately large migration of professional engineers and doctors. Britain lost vast numbers of professionals to the United States relying on foreign doctors, mainly Indian and Pakistanis, to man its National Health Service. Franc prides itself in aid to the former colonies, yet more professionals are sent from the colonies to France than vice versa. The sending nations cannot continue to afford to educate professionals for the benefit of developed nations. (Adams, 1968).

The movement of trained professionals has many implications. On the surface it appears that the originating nations loses if they have invested in the migrants education, however, if the migrant professional maintains ties to his homeland, he may remit funds bolstering the homeland economy. The reasons for migration vary but include the desire for higher incomes and familiarity with western lifestyles acquired during a western education. Sub-Saharan countries with faltering economies make it difficult for foreign study migrants to repatriate because they cannot absorb those graduates into their economies. The stream of migrant professionals from sub-Saharan Africa into the United States increased over 1000% from 1975 to 1985 and continues to increase (Logan, 1987) (Thomas, 1994).

Migrants participating in the brain drain effect are motivated by diverse push pull factors. The dominant push pull factors controlling the reverse technology transfer out of Africa are economic and social. The pull factors in the West include relaxed immigration policies following World War II; the occupation and education-selective nature of the visa-granting process and subsequent change of immigration status; the familiarity gained and professional networks established while studying overseas and globalization. Important push factors include improved access to higher education for Africans; the financial ability of African professionals to migrate; stagnant and declining economies and the general absence of suitable opportunities. The worsening economies in Africa during the 1980s have aggravated the situation. For instance, the monies in spent on education in Ghana have declined from US $20 per capita in 1972 to less than US $1 in 1983. This has resulted in less demand for educated teachers adding to the Brain Drain problem (Logan, 1992).

Nigeria has implemented Draconian measures to stabilize an out of control, crumbling economy. The economy has stabilized but has had cause crushing inflation of over 300 percent. A professor earns $94 a month while it costs over $100 a month to feed a family of four. The result has been a relatively huge emigration of professionals causing a brain drain crisis (Ekorika, 1997).

Several studies have looked at the Brain Drain phenomena by looking at the immigrants into the United States. The flow of professionals from Africa into the United States continues in spite of tightening, more restrictive immigration laws. The United States attempts to extend aid to African nations by providing higher education opportunities, however, many foreigners who study in the United States immigrate to the U.S. when their education is completed. This phenomena is attributable to the lack of opportunities in the sending country, the student gaining an education in a field that is not useful in the sending country, and the student establishing social and professional ties in the United States (MacPhee, 1990).

IV. Current Trends

The common push factor noted ion the literature is lack of opportunity for educated professionals. Several African nations are showing signs of implementing effective policy to begin to stem the tide of the Brain Drain by stabilizing their economies. Maritius, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa all have growing economies that are being built on more stable governments pursuing export oriented economies (Hawthorne, 1998). Mozambiqu, Mali and Ghana have focused on the needs and resources of their people to build more stable, albeit fragile, democracies. They no longer look at the United States as a benefactor, but rather as a trading partner and are building their economies by pursuing free trade capitalism (McCeary, 1998).

The brain drain is not isolated to Africa, Asian nations are experiencing similar problems. Some countries are attacking the brain drain head on. Thailand, for example, has implemented a proactive policy to repatriate Thai professionals living abroad by offering incentives and information about Thai opportunities (National Science and Technology Development Agency, 1998).

V. Conclusion

The push pull factors contributing to the brain drain are complicated and systemic. African nations will not be able to reverse the trends until meaningful opportunities are created. Stable governments and growing economies need to become the norm rather than the exception.